Skip to main content
Australian Auditing Standards

ASA 240

The Auditor's Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of a Financial Report

Download Current PDF

Approval Date: 30 June 2020

Operative Date This Australian Auditing Standards is operative for financial reporting periods beginning on or after 15 December 2019 but before 15 December 2021 that end on or after 15 July 2020

Download Current PDF

Approval Date: 30 June 2020

This Auditing Standard deals with the auditor’s responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of a financial report.

Compilation Details

Auditing Standard ASA 240 The Auditor's Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of a Financial Report (as Amended)

This compilation takes into account amendments made up to and including 30 June 2020 and was prepared on 8 July 2020 by the Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (AUASB).

This compilation is not a separate Auditing Standard made by the AUASB.  Instead, it is a representation of ASA 240 (October 2009) as amended by other Auditing Standards which are listed in the Table below.

Table of Standards

Standard

Date made

Operative Date

ASA 240          [A]

27 October 2009

Financial reporting periods commencing on or after 1 January 2010

ASA 2011‑1      [B]

27 June 2011

Financial reporting periods commencing on or after 1 July 2011

ASA 2013‑2      [C]

11 November 2013

Financial reporting periods commencing on or after 1 January 2014

ASA 2015‑1      [D]

1 December 2015

Financial reporting periods ending on or after 15 December 2016

ASA 2017-2      [E]

30 May 2017

Financial reporting periods commencing on or after 1 January 2018

ASA 2018-1      [F]

5 December 2018

Financial reporting periods commencing on or after 15 December 2019, with early adoption permitted*

ASA 2020-2      [G]

30 June 2020

Financial reporting periods ending on or after 15 July 2020

 

[A]       Federal Register of Legislation – registration number F2009L04075, 11 November 2009

[B]       Federal Register of Legislation – registration number F2011L01379, 30 June 2011

[C]       Federal Register of Legislation – registration number F2013L01939, 11 November 2013

[D]       Federal Register of Legislation – registration number F2015L02032, 16 December 2015

[E]       Federal Register of Legislation – registration number F2017L01179, 13 September 2017

[F]        Federal Register of Legislation – registration number F2019L00016, 3 January 2019

[G]       Federal Register of Legislation – registration number F2020L00885, 7 July 2020

Table of Amendments

Paragraph affected

How affected

By … [paragraph]

A30

Amended

ASA 2011‑1 [23]

19

Amended

ASA 2013‑2 [39]

Heading above paragraph A18

Amended

ASA 2013‑2 [40]

A18

Amended

ASA 2013‑2 [41]

A18
Footnote 15

Amended

ASA 2013‑2 [42]

Appendix 1

Amended

ASA 2013‑2 [43]

A4

Amended

ASA 2015‑1 [48]

A11

Amended

ASA 2015‑1 [49]

A65.1

Amended

ASA 2015‑1 [50]

5
Footnote 3

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [18]

6
Footnote 4

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [19]

9

Addition

ASA 2017-2 [20]

13

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [21]

41

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [22]

42

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [23]

43

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [24]

Heading above paragraph 44

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [25]

44

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [26]

Headings above paragraph A6

Addition

ASA 2017-2 [27]

A6

Addition

ASA 2017-2 [28]

A10
Footnote 16

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [29]

Heading above paragraph A61

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [30]

A61

Addition

ASA 2017-2 [31]

Heading above paragraph A67

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [32]

A67

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [33]

A68

Amended

ASA 2017-2 [34]

A48

Amended

ASA 2018-1 [14]

13
Footnote 5

Amended

ASA 2018-1 [15]

A48
Footnote 20

Amended

ASA 2018-1 [16]

Aus A67.1
Footnote *

Amended

ASA 2018-1 [17]

A6

Amended

ASA 2020-2 [27]

A6 Footnote 15

Amended

ASA 2020-2 [28]

 

Preamble

Includes: Authority Statement, Conformity with International Standards on Auditing, Auditing Standard ASA 240

Authority Statement

Auditing Standard ASA 240 The Auditor's Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of a Financial Report (as amended to 30 June 2020) is set out in paragraphs Aus 0.1 to A69 and Appendices 1 to 3.

This Auditing Standard is to be read in conjunction with ASA 101 Preamble to Australian Auditing Standards, which sets out the intentions of the AUASB on how the Australian Auditing Standards, operative for financial reporting periods commencing on or after 1 January 2010, are to be understood, interpreted and applied.  This Auditing Standard is to be read also in conjunction with ASA 200 Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Australian Auditing Standards.

Conformity with International Standards on Auditing

This Auditing Standard conforms with International Standard on Auditing ISA 240 The Auditor's Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of a Financial Report issued by the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB), an independent standard‑setting board of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC).

Paragraphs that have been added to this Auditing Standard (and do not appear in the text of the equivalent ISA) are identified with the prefix “Aus”.

The following application and other explanatory material is additional to ASA 240:

  • For an audit engagement under the Corporations Act 2001 (the Act), the possibility of withdrawing from the engagement or resigning from the appointment as an auditor can only be made in accordance with the provisions of the Act, including in certain circumstances, obtaining consent to resign from the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC). (Ref: Para. Aus A57.1)
  • Legislation may require the auditor or a member of the audit team to maintain the confidentiality of information disclosed to the auditor, or a member of the audit team, by a person regarding contraventions or possible contraventions of the law.  In such circumstances, the auditor or a member of the audit team may be prevented from communicating that information to management or those charged with governance in order to protect the identity of the person who has disclosed confidential information that alleges a breach of the law.  In such circumstances, the auditor may consider obtaining legal advice to assist in determining the appropriate course of action and may need to consider the implications for the audit engagement. (Ref: Para. Aus A62.1)
  • An auditor is required by the Corporations Act 2001 to notify the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) if the auditor is aware of certain circumstances. (Ref: Para. Aus A67.1)

This Auditing Standard incorporates terminology and definitions used in Australia.

The equivalent requirements and related application and other explanatory material included in ISA 240 in respect of “relevant ethical requirements”, have been included in Auditing Standard, ASA 102 Compliance with Ethical Requirements when Performing Audits, Reviews and Other Assurance Engagements. There is no international equivalent to ASA 102.

Compliance with this Auditing Standard enables compliance with ISA 240.

Auditing Standard ASA 240

The Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (AUASB) made Auditing Standard ASA 240 The Auditor's Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of a Financial Report pursuant to section 227B of the Australian Securities and Investments Commission Act 2001 and section 336 of the Corporations Act 2001, on 27 October 2009.

This compiled version of ASA 240 incorporates subsequent amendments contained in other Auditing Standards made by the AUASB up to and including 30 June 2020 (see Compilation Details).

Application

Application

Aus 0.1

This Auditing Standard applies to:

  1. an audit of a financial report for a financial year, or an audit of a financial report for a half‑year, in accordance with the Corporations Act 2001; and
  2. an audit of a financial report, or a complete set of financial statements, for any other purpose.

Aus 0.2

This Auditing Standard also applies, as appropriate, to an audit of other historical financial information.

*_1

Early adoption, in conjunction with ASA 540 Auditing Accounting Estimates and Related Disclosures, permitted.

Operative Date

Aus 0.3

This Auditing Standard is operative for financial reporting periods commencing on or after 1 January 2010[Note: For operative dates of paragraphs changed or added by an Amending Standard, see Compilation Details.]

Introduction

Includes: Scope of this Auditing Standard, Characteristics of Fraud, Responsibility for the Prevention and Detection of Fraud, Effective Date

Scope of this Auditing Standard

1

This Auditing Standard deals with the auditor’s responsibilities relating to fraud in an audit of a financial report.  Specifically, it expands on how ASA 315[1] and ASA 330[2] are to be applied in relation to risks of material misstatement due to fraud.

Characteristics of Fraud

2

Misstatements in the financial report can arise from either fraud or error.  The distinguishing factor between fraud and error is whether the underlying action that results in the misstatement of the financial report is intentional or unintentional. 

Responsibility for the Prevention and Detection of Fraud

4

The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud rests with both those charged with governance of the entity and management.  It is important that management, with the oversight of those charged with governance, place a strong emphasis on fraud prevention, which may reduce opportunities for fraud to take place, and fraud deterrence, which could persuade individuals not to commit fraud because of the likelihood of detection and punishment.  This involves a commitment to creating a culture of honesty and ethical behaviour which can be reinforced by an active oversight by those charged with governance.  Oversight by those charged with governance includes considering the potential for override of controls or other inappropriate influence over the financial reporting process, such as efforts by management to manage earnings in order to influence the perceptions of analysts as to the entity’s performance and profitability.

Responsibilities of the Auditor

5

An auditor conducting an audit in accordance with Australian Auditing Standards is responsible for obtaining reasonable assurance that the financial report taken as a whole is free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or error.  Owing to the inherent limitations of an audit, there is an unavoidable risk that some material misstatements of the financial report may not be detected, even though the audit is properly planned and performed in accordance with Australian Auditing Standards.[3]

 

6

As described in ASA 200,[4] the potential effects of inherent limitations are particularly significant in the case of misstatement resulting from fraud.  The risk of not detecting a material misstatement resulting from fraud is higher than the risk of not detecting one resulting from error.  This is because fraud may involve sophisticated and carefully organised schemes designed to conceal it, such as forgery, deliberate failure to record transactions, or intentional misrepresentations being made to the auditor.  Such attempts at concealment may be even more difficult to detect when accompanied by collusion.  Collusion may cause the auditor to believe that audit evidence is persuasive when it is, in fact, false.  The auditor’s ability to detect a fraud depends on factors such as the skilfulness of the perpetrator, the frequency and extent of manipulation, the degree of collusion involved, the relative size of individual amounts manipulated, and the seniority of those individuals involved.  While the auditor may be able to identify potential opportunities for fraud to be perpetrated, it is difficult for the auditor to determine whether misstatements in judgement areas such as accounting estimates are caused by fraud or error.

 

7

Furthermore, the risk of the auditor not detecting a material misstatement resulting from management fraud is greater than for employee fraud, because management is frequently in a position to directly or indirectly manipulate accounting records, present fraudulent financial information or override control procedures designed to prevent similar frauds by other employees. 

8

When obtaining reasonable assurance, the auditor is responsible for maintaining professional scepticism throughout the audit, considering the potential for management override of controls and recognising the fact that audit procedures that are effective for detecting error may not be effective in detecting fraud.  The requirements in this Auditing Standard are designed to assist the auditor in identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement due to fraud and in designing procedures to detect such misstatement.

9

The auditor may have additional responsibilities under law, regulation or relevant ethical requirements regarding an entity’s non‑compliance with laws and regulations, including fraud, which may differ from or go beyond this and other Australian Auditing Standards, such as: (Ref: Para. A6)

  1. Responding to identified or suspected non‑compliance with laws and regulations, including requirements in relation to specific communications with management and those charged with governance, assessing the appropriateness of their response to non‑compliance and determining whether further action is needed;
  2. Communicating identified or suspected non‑compliance with laws and regulations to other auditors (e.g., in an audit of a group financial report); and
  3. Documentation requirements regarding identified or suspected non‑compliance with laws and regulations.

Complying with any additional responsibilities may provide further information that is relevant to the auditor’s work in accordance with this and other Australian Auditing Standards (e.g., regarding the integrity of management or, where appropriate, those charged with governance).

Effective Date

10

[Deleted by the AUASB.  Refer Aus 0.3]

1

See ASA 315 Identifying and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement through Understanding the Entity and Its Environment.

2

See ASA 330 The Auditor’s Responses to Assessed Risks.

3

See ASA 200 Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Australian Auditing Standards, paragraph A53‑A54.

4

See ASA 200, paragraph A53.

Objective

11

​The objectives of the auditor are:

  1. To identify and assess the risks of material misstatement of the financial report due to fraud;
  2. To obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud, through designing and implementing appropriate responses; and
  3. To respond appropriately to fraud or suspected fraud identified during the audit.

Definitions

12

For the purposes of this Auditing Standard, the following terms have the meanings attributed below:

12(a)

Fraud means an intentional act by one or more individuals among management, those charged with governance, employees, or third parties, involving the use of deception to obtain an unjust or illegal advantage.

12(b)

Fraud risk factors means events or conditions that indicate an incentive or pressure to commit fraud or provide an opportunity to commit fraud.

Requirements

Includes: Professional Scepticism , Discussion among the Engagement Team , Risk Assessment Procedures and Related Activities, Identification and Assessment of the Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud, Responses to the Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud, Evaluation of Audit Evidence , Auditor Unable to Continue the Engagement , Written Representations , Communications to Management and with Those Charged With Governance , Reporting Fraud to an Appropriate Authority Outside the Entity, Documentation

Professional Scepticism

13

In accordance with ASA 200[5], the auditor shall maintain professional scepticism throughout the audit, recognising the possibility that a material misstatement due to fraud could exist, notwithstanding the auditor’s past experience of the honesty and integrity of the entity’s management and those charged with governance.  (Ref: Para. A8A9)

 

14

Unless the auditor has reason to believe the contrary, the auditor may accept records and documents as genuine.  If conditions identified during the audit cause the auditor to believe that a document may not be authentic or that terms in a document have been modified but not disclosed to the auditor, the auditor shall investigate further.  (Ref: Para. A10)

Discussion among the Engagement Team

16

ASA 315 requires a discussion among the engagement team members and a determination by the engagement partner of which matters are to be communicated to those team members not involved in the discussion[6].  This discussion shall place particular emphasis on how and where the entity’s financial report may be susceptible to material misstatement due to fraud, including how fraud might occur.  The discussion shall occur setting aside beliefs that the engagement team members may have that management and those charged with governance are honest and have integrity.  (Ref: Para. A11A12)

 

Risk Assessment Procedures and Related Activities

17

When performing risk assessment procedures and related activities to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment, including the entity’s internal control, required by ASA 315,[7] the auditor shall perform the procedures in paragraphs 18‑25 of this Auditing Standard to obtain information for use in identifying the risks of material misstatement due to fraud.

Management and Others within the Entity

19

The auditor shall make enquiries of management, and others within the entity as appropriate, to determine whether they have knowledge of any actual, suspected or alleged fraud affecting the entity.  (Ref: Para. A16A18)

Those Charged with Governance

21

Unless all of those charged with governance are involved in managing the entity,[8] the auditor shall obtain an understanding of how those charged with governance exercise oversight of management’s processes for identifying and responding to the risks of fraud in the entity and the internal control that management has established to mitigate these risks.  (Ref: Para. A20A22)

22

Unless all of those charged with governance are involved in managing the entity, the auditor shall make enquiries of those charged with governance to determine whether they have knowledge of any actual, suspected or alleged fraud affecting the entity.  These enquiries are made in part to corroborate the responses to the enquiries of management.

Unusual or Unexpected Relationships Identified

23

The auditor shall evaluate whether unusual or unexpected relationships that have been identified in performing analytical procedures, including those related to revenue accounts, may indicate risks of material misstatement due to fraud.

Other Information

Evaluation of Fraud Risk Factors

27

When identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement due to fraud, the auditor shall, based on a presumption that there are risks of fraud in revenue recognition, evaluate which types of revenue, revenue transactions or assertions give rise to such risks.  Paragraph 48 of this Auditing Standard specifies the documentation required where the auditor concludes that the presumption is not applicable in the circumstances of the engagement and, accordingly, has not identified revenue recognition as a risk of material misstatement due to fraud.  (Ref: Para. A29A31)

Responses to the Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud

Overall Responses

30

In determining overall responses to address the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud at the financial report level, the auditor shall:

  1. Assign and supervise personnel taking account of the knowledge, skill and ability of the individuals to be given significant engagement responsibilities and the auditor’s assessment of the risks of material misstatement due to fraud for the engagement; (Ref: Para. A35‑A36)
  2. Evaluate whether the selection and application of accounting policies by the entity, particularly those related to subjective measurements and complex transactions, may be indicative of fraudulent financial reporting resulting from management’s effort to manage earnings; and
  3. Incorporate an element of unpredictability in the selection of the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures.  (Ref: Para. A37)

Audit Procedures Responsive to Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud at the Assertion Level

Audit Procedures Responsive to Risks Related to Management Override of Controls

32

Management is in a unique position to perpetrate fraud because of management’s ability to manipulate accounting records and prepare a fraudulent financial report by overriding controls that otherwise appear to be operating effectively.  Although the level of risk of management override of controls will vary from entity to entity, the risk is nevertheless present in all entities.  Due to the unpredictable way in which such override could occur, it is a risk of material misstatement due to fraud and thus a significant risk.

33

Irrespective of the auditor’s assessment of the risks of management override of controls, the auditor shall design and perform audit procedures to:

  1. Test the appropriateness of journal entries recorded in the general ledger and other adjustments made in the preparation of the financial report.  In designing and performing audit procedures for such tests, the auditor shall:
    1. Make enquiries of individuals involved in the financial reporting process about inappropriate or unusual activity relating to the processing of journal entries and other adjustments;
    2. Select journal entries and other adjustments made at the end of a reporting period; and
    3. Consider the need to test journal entries and other adjustments throughout the period.  (Ref: Para. A42‑A45)
  2. Review accounting estimates for biases and evaluate whether the circumstances producing the bias, if any, represent a risk of material misstatement due to fraud.  In performing this review, the auditor shall:
    1. Evaluate whether the judgements and decisions made by management in making the accounting estimates included in the financial report, even if they are individually reasonable, indicate a possible bias on the part of the entity’s management that may represent a risk of material misstatement due to fraud.  If so, the auditor shall re‑evaluate the accounting estimates taken as a whole; and
    2. Perform a retrospective review of management judgements and assumptions related to significant accounting estimates reflected in the financial report of the prior year.  (Ref: Para. A46‑A48)
  3. For significant transactions that are outside the normal course of business for the entity, or that otherwise appear to be unusual given the auditor’s understanding of the entity and its environment and other information obtained during the audit, evaluate whether the business rationale (or the lack thereof) of the transactions suggests that they may have been entered into to engage in fraudulent financial reporting or to conceal misappropriation of assets.  (Ref: Para. A49)

34

The auditor shall determine whether, in order to respond to the identified risks of management override of controls, the auditor needs to perform other audit procedures in addition to those specifically referred to above (that is, where there are specific additional risks of management override that are not covered as part of the procedures performed to address the requirements in paragraph 33 of this Auditing Standard). 

Evaluation of Audit Evidence

(Ref: Para. A50)

37

If the auditor identifies a misstatement, whether material or not, and the auditor has reason to believe that it is or may be the result of fraud and that management (in particular, senior management) is involved, the auditor shall re‑evaluate the assessment of the risks of material misstatement due to fraud and its resulting impact on the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures to respond to the assessed risks.  The auditor shall also consider whether circumstances or conditions indicate possible collusion involving employees, management or third parties when reconsidering the reliability of evidence previously obtained.  (Ref: Para. A53)

Auditor Unable to Continue the Engagement

39

If, as a result of a misstatement resulting from fraud or suspected fraud, the auditor encounters exceptional circumstances that bring into question the auditor’s ability to continue performing the audit, the auditor shall:

  1. Determine the professional and legal responsibilities applicable in the circumstances, including whether there is a requirement for the auditor to report to the person or persons who made the audit appointment or, in some cases, to regulatory authorities;
  2. Consider whether it is appropriate to withdraw from the engagement, where withdrawal is possible under applicable law or regulation; and
  3. If the auditor withdraws:
    1. Discuss with the appropriate level of management and those charged with governance the auditor’s withdrawal from the engagement and the reasons for the withdrawal; and
    2. Determine whether there is a professional or legal requirement to report to the person or persons who made the audit appointment or, in some cases, to regulatory authorities, the auditor’s withdrawal from the engagement and the reasons for the withdrawal.  (Ref: Para. A55‑A58)

Written Representations

40

The auditor shall obtain written representations from management and, where appropriate, those charged with governance that:

  1. They acknowledge their responsibility for the design, implementation and maintenance of internal control to prevent and detect fraud;
  2. They have disclosed to the auditor the results of management’s assessment of the risk that the financial report may be materially misstated as a result of fraud;
  3. They have disclosed to the auditor their knowledge of fraud or suspected fraud affecting the entity involving:
    1. Management;
    2. Employees who have significant roles in internal control; or
    3. Others where the fraud could have a material effect on the financial report; and
  4. They have disclosed to the auditor their knowledge of any allegations of fraud, or suspected fraud, affecting the entity’s financial report communicated by employees, former employees, analysts, regulators or others.  (Ref: Para. A59‑A60)

42

Unless all of those charged with governance are involved in managing the entity, if the auditor has identified or suspects fraud involving:

  1. Management;
  2. Employees who have significant roles in internal control; or
  3. Others where the fraud results in a material misstatement in the financial report,

the auditor shall communicate these matters with those charged with governance on a timely basis.  If the auditor suspects fraud involving management, the auditor shall communicate these suspicions with those charged with governance and discuss with them the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures necessary to complete the audit. Such communications with those charged with governance are required unless the communication is prohibited by law or regulation.  (Ref: Para. A61, A63-A65)

Reporting Fraud to an Appropriate Authority Outside the Entity

44

If the auditor has identified or suspects a fraud, the auditor shall determine whether law, regulation or relevant ethical requirements:  (Ref: Para. A67A68)

  1. Require the auditor to report to an appropriate authority outside the entity.
  2. Establish responsibilities under which reporting to an appropriate authority outside the entity may be appropriate in the circumstances.

Documentation

45

The auditor shall include the following in the audit documentation[12] of the auditor’s understanding of the entity and its environment and the assessment of the risks of material misstatement required by ASA 315:[13]

  1. The significant decisions reached during the discussion among the engagement team regarding the susceptibility of the entity’s financial report to material misstatement due to fraud; and
  2. The identified and assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud at the financial report level and at the assertion level.

46

The auditor shall include the following in the audit documentation of the auditor’s responses to the assessed risks of material misstatement required by ASA 330:[14]

  1. The overall responses to the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud at the financial report level and the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures, and the linkage of those procedures with the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud at the assertion level; and
  2. The results of the audit procedures, including those designed to address the risk of management override of controls.
 

47

The auditor shall include in the audit documentation communications about fraud made to management, those charged with governance, regulators and others.

5

See ASA 200, paragraph 15.

6

See ASA 315, paragraph 10.

7

See ASA 315, paragraphs 5‑24.

8

See ASA 260 Communication with Those Charged with Governance, paragraph 13.

9

See ASA 315, paragraph 25.

10

See ASA 330, paragraph 5.

11

See ASA 330, paragraph 6.

12

See ASA 230 Audit Documentation, paragraphs 8‑11 and paragraph A6.

13

See ASA 315, paragraph 32.

14

See ASA 330, paragraph 28.

Application and Other Explanatory Material

Includes: Characteristics of Fraud , Responsibility for the Prevention and Detection of Fraud, Professional Scepticism , Discussion among the Engagement Team , Risk Assessment Procedures and Related Activities, Identification and Assessment of the Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud , Responses to the Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud , Evaluation of Audit Evidence , Auditor Unable to Continue the Engagement , Written Representations , Communications to Management and with Those Charged With Governance, Reporting Fraud to an Appropriate Authority outside the Entity

Characteristics of Fraud

(Ref: Para. 3)

A1

Fraud, whether fraudulent financial reporting or misappropriation of assets, involves incentive or pressure to commit fraud, a perceived opportunity to do so and some rationalisation of the act.  For example:

  • Incentive or pressure to commit fraudulent financial reporting may exist when management is under pressure, from sources outside or inside the entity, to achieve an expected (and perhaps unrealistic) earnings target or financial outcome – particularly since the consequences to management for failing to meet financial goals can be significant.  Similarly, individuals may have an incentive to misappropriate assets, for example, because the individuals are living beyond their means. 
  • A perceived opportunity to commit fraud may exist when an individual believes internal control can be overridden, for example, because the individual is in a position of trust or has knowledge of specific deficiencies in internal control. 
  • Individuals may be able to rationalise committing a fraudulent act.  Some individuals possess an attitude, character or set of ethical values that allow them knowingly and intentionally to commit a dishonest act.  However, even otherwise honest individuals can commit fraud in an environment that imposes sufficient pressure on them.

A2

Fraudulent financial reporting involves intentional misstatements including omissions of amounts or disclosures in the financial report to deceive financial report users.  It can be caused by the efforts of management to manage earnings in order to deceive financial report users by influencing their perceptions as to the entity’s performance and profitability.  Such earnings management may start out with small actions or inappropriate adjustment of assumptions and changes in judgements by management.  Pressures and incentives may lead these actions to increase to the extent that they result in fraudulent financial reporting.  Such a situation could occur when, due to pressures to meet market expectations or a desire to maximise compensation based on performance, management intentionally takes positions that lead to fraudulent financial reporting by materially misstating the financial report.  In some entities, management may be motivated to reduce earnings by a material amount to minimise tax or to inflate earnings to secure bank financing.

A3

Fraudulent financial reporting may be accomplished by the following:

  • Manipulation, falsification (including forgery), or alteration of accounting records or supporting documentation from which the financial report is prepared.
  • Misrepresentation in, or intentional omission from, the financial report of events, transactions or other significant information.
  • Intentional misapplication of accounting principles relating to amounts, classification, manner of presentation, or disclosure.

A4

Fraudulent financial reporting often involves management override of controls that otherwise may appear to be operating effectively.  Fraud can be committed by management overriding controls using such techniques as intentionally:

  • Recording fictitious journal entries, particularly close to the end of an accounting period, to manipulate operating results or achieve other objectives.
  • Inappropriately adjusting assumptions and changing judgements used to estimate account balances. 
  • Omitting, advancing or delaying recognition in the financial statements of events and transactions that have occurred during the reporting period.
  • Omitting, obscuring or misstating disclosures required by the applicable financial reporting framework, or disclosures that are necessary to achieve fair presentation.
  • Concealing facts that could affect the amounts recorded in the financial report.
  • Engaging in complex transactions that are structured to misrepresent the financial position or financial performance of the entity.
  • Altering records and terms related to significant and unusual transactions.

A5

Misappropriation of assets involves the theft of an entity’s assets and is often perpetrated by employees in relatively small and immaterial amounts.  However, it can also involve management who are usually more able to disguise or conceal misappropriations in ways that are difficult to detect.  Misappropriation of assets can be accomplished in a variety of ways including:

  • Embezzling receipts (for example, misappropriating collections on accounts receivable or diverting receipts in respect of written‑off accounts to personal bank accounts).
  • Stealing physical assets or intellectual property (for example, stealing inventory for personal use or for sale, stealing scrap for resale, colluding with a competitor by disclosing technological data in return for payment). 
  • Causing an entity to pay for goods and services not received (for example, payments to fictitious vendors, kickbacks paid by vendors to the entity’s purchasing agents in return for inflating prices, payments to fictitious employees).
  • Using an entity’s assets for personal use (for example, using the entity’s assets as collateral for a personal loan or a loan to a related party).
  • Misappropriation of assets is often accompanied by false or misleading records or documents in order to conceal the fact that the assets are missing or have been pledged without proper authorisation.

Responsibility for the Prevention and Detection of Fraud

Responsibilities of the Auditor (Ref: Para. 9)

Considerations Specific to Public Sector Entities

Professional Scepticism

(Ref: Para. 13‑15)

A10

An audit performed in accordance with Australian Auditing Standards rarely involves the authentication of documents, nor is the auditor trained as or expected to be an expert in such authentication.[16]  However, when the auditor identifies conditions that cause the auditor to believe that a document may not be authentic or that terms in a document have been modified but not disclosed to the auditor, possible procedures to investigate further may include:

  • Confirming directly with the third party.
  • Using the work of an expert to assess the document’s authenticity.
 

Discussion among the Engagement Team

(Ref: Para. 16

A11

Discussing the susceptibility of the entity’s financial report to material misstatement due to fraud with the engagement team:

  • Provides an opportunity for more experienced engagement team members to share their insights about how and where the financial report may be susceptible to material misstatement due to fraud. 
  • Enables the auditor to consider an appropriate response to such susceptibility and to determine which members of the engagement team will conduct certain audit procedures.
  • Permits the auditor to determine how the results of audit procedures will be shared among the engagement team and how to deal with any allegations of fraud that may come to the auditor’s attention. 

A12

The discussion may include such matters as:

  • An exchange of ideas among engagement team members about how and where they believe the entity’s financial report (including the individual financial statements and the disclosures) may be susceptible to material misstatement due to fraud, how management could perpetrate and conceal fraudulent financial reporting, and how assets of the entity could be misappropriated.
  • A consideration of circumstances that might be indicative of earnings management and the practices that might be followed by management to manage earnings that could lead to fraudulent financial reporting.
  • A consideration of the risk that management may attempt to present disclosures in a manner that may obscure a proper understanding of the matters disclosed (for example, by including too much immaterial information or by using unclear or ambiguous language).
  • A consideration of the known external and internal factors affecting the entity that may create an incentive or pressure for management or others to commit fraud, provide the opportunity for fraud to be perpetrated, and indicate a culture or environment that enables management or others to rationalise committing fraud.
  • A consideration of management’s involvement in overseeing employees with access to cash or other assets susceptible to misappropriation.
  • A consideration of any unusual or unexplained changes in behaviour or lifestyle of management or employees which have come to the attention of the engagement team.
  • An emphasis on the importance of maintaining a proper state of mind throughout the audit regarding the potential for material misstatement due to fraud. 
  • A consideration of the types of circumstances that, if encountered, might indicate the possibility of fraud. 
  • A consideration of how an element of unpredictability will be incorporated into the nature, timing and extent of the audit procedures to be performed.
  • A consideration of the audit procedures that might be selected to respond to the susceptibility of the entity’s financial report to material misstatement due to fraud and whether certain types of audit procedures are more effective than others.
  • A consideration of any allegations of fraud that have come to the auditor’s attention.
  • A consideration of the risk of management override of controls. 

Risk Assessment Procedures and Related Activities

Management’s Assessment of the Risk of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud (Ref: Para. 18(a))

Considerations specific to smaller entities

Management’s Process for Identifying and Responding to the Risks of Fraud (Ref: Para. 18(b))

Enquiry of Management and Others within the Entity (Ref: Para. 18)

A17

Examples of others within the entity to whom the auditor may direct enquiries about the existence or suspicion of fraud include:

  • Operating personnel not directly involved in the financial reporting process.
  • Employees with different levels of authority.
  • Employees involved in initiating, processing or recording complex or unusual transactions and those who supervise or monitor such employees.
  • In‑house legal counsel. 
  • Chief ethics officer or equivalent person.
  • The person or persons charged with dealing with allegations of fraud.

Enquiries of the Internal Audit Function (Ref: Para. 20)

A19

ASA 315 and ASA 610 establish requirements and provide guidance relevant to audits of those entities that have an internal audit function.[17]  In carrying out the requirements of those Auditing Standards in the context of fraud, the auditor may enquire about specific activities of the function including, for example:

  • The procedures performed, if any, by the internal audit function during the year to detect fraud.
  • Whether management has satisfactorily responded to any findings resulting from those procedures.

Obtaining an Understanding of Oversight Exercised by Those Charged With Governance (Ref: Para. 21)

A21

An understanding of the oversight exercised by those charged with governance may provide insights regarding the susceptibility of the entity to management fraud, the adequacy of internal control over risks of fraud, and the competency and integrity of management.  The auditor may obtain this understanding in a number of ways, such as by attending meetings where such discussions take place, reading the minutes from such meetings or making enquiries of those charged with governance.

Considerations Specific to Smaller Entities

Consideration of Other Information (Ref: Para. 24)

Evaluation of Fraud Risk Factors (Ref: Para. 25)

A24

The fact that fraud is usually concealed can make it very difficult to detect.  Nevertheless, the auditor may identify events or conditions that indicate an incentive or pressure to commit fraud or provide an opportunity to commit fraud (fraud risk factors).  For example:

  • The need to meet expectations of third parties to obtain additional equity financing may create pressure to commit fraud;
  • The granting of significant bonuses if unrealistic profit targets are met may create an incentive to commit fraud; and
  • A control environment that is not effective may create an opportunity to commit fraud.

A25

Fraud risk factors cannot easily be ranked in order of importance.  The significance of fraud risk factors varies widely.  Some of these factors will be present in entities where the specific conditions do not present risks of material misstatement.  Accordingly, the determination of whether a fraud risk factor is present and whether it is to be considered in assessing the risks of material misstatement of the financial report due to fraud requires the exercise of professional judgement. 

A26

Examples of fraud risk factors related to fraudulent financial reporting and misappropriation of assets are presented in Appendix 1.  These illustrative risk factors are classified based on the three conditions that are generally present when fraud exists:

  • An incentive or pressure to commit fraud;
  • A perceived opportunity to commit fraud; and
  • An ability to rationalise the fraudulent action. 

Risk factors reflective of an attitude that permits rationalisation of the fraudulent action may not be susceptible to observation by the auditor.  Nevertheless, the auditor may become aware of the existence of such information.  Although the fraud risk factors described in Appendix 1 cover a broad range of situations that may be faced by auditors, they are only examples and other risk factors may exist. 

A27

The size, complexity, and ownership characteristics of the entity have a significant influence on the consideration of relevant fraud risk factors.  For example, in the case of a large entity, there may be factors that generally constrain improper conduct by management, such as:

  • Effective oversight by those charged with governance. 
  • An effective internal audit function.
  • The existence and enforcement of a written code of conduct. 

Furthermore, fraud risk factors considered at a business segment operating level may provide different insights when compared with those obtained when considered at an entity‑wide level. 

Considerations Specific to Smaller Entities

Identification and Assessment of the Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud

Risks of Fraud in Revenue Recognition (Ref: Para. 27)

A30

The risks of fraud in revenue recognition may be greater in some entities than others.  For example, there may be pressures or incentives on management to commit fraudulent financial reporting through inappropriate revenue recognition in the case of listed entities when, for example, performance is measured in terms of year‑over‑year revenue growth or profit.  Similarly, for example, there may be greater risks of fraud in revenue recognition in the case of entities that generate a substantial portion of revenues through cash sales. 

Identifying and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud and Understanding the Entity’s Related Controls (Ref: Para. 28)

A32

Management may make judgements on the nature and extent of the controls it chooses to implement, and the nature and extent of the risks it chooses to assume.[19]  In determining which controls to implement to prevent and detect fraud, management considers the risks that the financial report may be materially misstated as a result of fraud.  As part of this consideration, management may conclude that it is not cost effective to implement and maintain a particular control in relation to the reduction in the risks of material misstatement due to fraud to be achieved. 

Responses to the Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud

Overall Responses (Ref: Para. 29)

A34

Determining overall responses to address the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud generally includes the consideration of how the overall conduct of the audit can reflect increased professional scepticism, for example, through:

  • Increased sensitivity in the selection of the nature and extent of documentation to be examined in support of material transactions.
  • Increased recognition of the need to corroborate management explanations or representations concerning material matters. 

It also involves more general considerations apart from the specific procedures otherwise planned; these considerations include the matters listed in paragraph 29, which are discussed below.

Assignment and Supervision of Personnel (Ref: Para. 30(a))

Unpredictability in the Selection of Audit Procedures (Ref: Para. 30(c))

A37

Incorporating an element of unpredictability in the selection of the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures to be performed is important as individuals within the entity who are familiar with the audit procedures normally performed on engagements may be more able to conceal fraudulent financial reporting.  This can be achieved by, for example:

  • Performing substantive audit procedures on selected account balances and assertions not otherwise tested due to their materiality or risk.
  • Adjusting the timing of audit procedures from that otherwise expected.
  • Using different sampling methods.
  • Performing audit procedures at different locations or at locations on an unannounced basis. 

Audit Procedures Responsive to Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud at the Assertion Level (Ref: Para. 31)

A38

The auditor’s responses to address the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud at the assertion level may include changing the nature, timing and extent of audit procedures in the following ways:

  • The nature of audit procedures to be performed may need to be changed to obtain audit evidence that is more reliable and relevant or to obtain additional corroborative information.  This may affect both the type of audit procedures to be performed and their combination.  For example:
    • Physical observation or inspection of certain assets may become more important or the auditor may choose to use computer‑assisted audit techniques to gather more evidence about data contained in significant accounts or electronic transaction files. 
    • The auditor may design procedures to obtain additional corroborative information.  For example, if the auditor identifies that management is under pressure to meet earnings expectations, there may be a related risk that management is inflating sales by entering into sales agreements that include terms that preclude revenue recognition or by invoicing sales before delivery.  In these circumstances, the auditor may, for example, design external confirmations not only to confirm outstanding amounts, but also to confirm the details of the sales agreements, including date, any rights of return and delivery terms.  In addition, the auditor might find it effective to supplement such external confirmations with enquiries of non‑financial personnel in the entity regarding any changes in sales agreements and delivery terms. 
  • The timing of substantive procedures may need to be modified.  The auditor may conclude that performing substantive testing at or near the period end better addresses an assessed risk of material misstatement due to fraud.  The auditor may conclude that, given the assessed risks of intentional misstatement or manipulation, audit procedures to extend audit conclusions from an interim date to the period end would not be effective.  In contrast, because an intentional misstatement—for example, a misstatement involving improper revenue recognition—may have been initiated in an interim period, the auditor may elect to apply substantive procedures to transactions occurring earlier in or throughout the reporting period.
  • The extent of the procedures applied reflects the assessment of the risks of material misstatement due to fraud.  For example, increasing sample sizes or performing analytical procedures at a more detailed level may be appropriate.  Also, computer‑assisted audit techniques may enable more extensive testing of electronic transactions and account files.  Such techniques can be used to select sample transactions from key electronic files, to sort transactions with specific characteristics, or to test an entire population instead of a sample.

A39

If the auditor identifies a risk of material misstatement due to fraud that affects inventory quantities, examining the entity’s inventory records may help to identify locations or items that require specific attention during or after the physical inventory count.  Such a review may lead to a decision to observe inventory counts at certain locations on an unannounced basis or to conduct inventory counts at all locations on the same date.

A40

The auditor may identify a risk of material misstatement due to fraud affecting a number of accounts and assertions.  These may include asset valuation, estimates relating to specific transactions (such as acquisitions, restructurings, or disposals of a segment of the business), and other significant accrued liabilities (such as pension or superannuation and other post‑employment benefit obligations, or environmental remediation liabilities).  The risk may also relate to significant changes in assumptions relating to recurring estimates.  Information gathered through obtaining an understanding of the entity and its environment may assist the auditor in evaluating the reasonableness of such management estimates and underlying judgements and assumptions.  A retrospective review of similar management judgements and assumptions applied in prior periods may also provide insight about the reasonableness of judgements and assumptions supporting management estimates.

Audit Procedures Responsive to Risks Related to Management Override of Controls

Journal Entries and Other Adjustments (Ref: Para. 33(a))

A43

Further, the auditor’s consideration of the risks of material misstatement associated with inappropriate override of controls over journal entries is important since automated processes and controls may reduce the risk of inadvertent error but do not overcome the risk that individuals may inappropriately override such automated processes, for example, by changing the amounts being automatically passed to the general ledger or to the financial reporting system.  Furthermore, where IT is used to transfer information automatically, there may be little or no visible evidence of such intervention in the information systems.

A44

When identifying and selecting journal entries and other adjustments for testing and determining the appropriate method of examining the underlying support for the items selected, the following matters are of relevance:

  • The assessment of the risks of material misstatement due to fraud – the presence of fraud risk factors and other information obtained during the auditor’s assessment of the risks of material misstatement due to fraud may assist the auditor to identify specific classes of journal entries and other adjustments for testing.
  • Controls that have been implemented over journal entries and other adjustments – effective controls over the preparation and posting of journal entries and other adjustments may reduce the extent of substantive testing necessary, provided that the auditor has tested the operating effectiveness of the controls.
  • The entity’s financial reporting process and the nature of evidence that can be obtained – for many entities routine processing of transactions involves a combination of manual and automated steps and procedures.  Similarly, the processing of journal entries and other adjustments may involve both manual and automated procedures and controls.  When information technology is used in the financial reporting process, journal entries and other adjustments may exist only in electronic form.
  • The characteristics of fraudulent journal entries or other adjustments – inappropriate journal entries or other adjustments often have unique identifying characteristics.  Such characteristics may include entries (a) made to unrelated, unusual, or seldom‑used accounts, (b) made by individuals who typically do not make journal entries, (c) recorded at the end of the period or as post‑closing entries that have little or no explanation or description, (d) made either before or during the preparation of the financial report that do not have account numbers, or (e) containing round numbers or consistent ending numbers.
  • The nature and complexity of the accounts – inappropriate journal entries or adjustments may be applied to accounts that (a) contain transactions that are complex or unusual in nature, (b) contain significant estimates and period‑end adjustments, (c) have been prone to misstatements in the past, (d) have not been reconciled on a timely basis or contain unreconciled differences, (e) contain inter‑company transactions, or (f) are otherwise associated with an identified risk of material misstatement due to fraud.  In audits of entities that have several locations or components, consideration is given to the need to select journal entries from multiple locations.
  • Journal entries or other adjustments processed outside the normal course of business – nonstandard journal entries may not be subject to the same level of internal control as those journal entries used on a recurring basis to record transactions such as monthly sales, purchases and cash disbursements.

A45

The auditor uses professional judgement in determining the nature, timing and extent of testing of journal entries and other adjustments.  However, because fraudulent journal entries and other adjustments are often made at the end of a reporting period, paragraph 33(a)(ii) requires the auditor to select the journal entries and other adjustments made at that time.  Further, because material misstatements in the financial report due to fraud can occur throughout the period and may involve extensive efforts to conceal how the fraud is accomplished, paragraph 33(a)(iii) requires the auditor to consider whether there is also a need to test journal entries and other adjustments throughout the period.

Accounting Estimates (Ref: Para. 33(b))

A46

The preparation of the financial report requires management to make a number of judgements or assumptions that affect significant accounting estimates and to monitor the reasonableness of such estimates on an ongoing basis. Fraudulent financial reporting is often accomplished through intentional misstatement of accounting estimates. This may be achieved by, for example, understating or overstating all provisions or reserves in the same fashion so as to be designed either to smooth earnings over two or more accounting periods, or to achieve a designated earnings level in order to deceive financial statement users by influencing their perceptions as to the entity’s performance and profitability.

A47

The purpose of performing a retrospective review of management judgements and assumptions related to significant accounting estimates reflected in the financial report of the prior year is to determine whether there is an indication of a possible bias on the part of management.  It is not intended to call into question the auditor’s professional judgements made in the prior year that were based on information available at the time. 

A48

A retrospective review is also required by ASA 540.[20]  That review is conducted as a risk assessment procedure to obtain information regarding the effectiveness of management’s previous accounting estimates, audit evidence about the outcome, or where applicable, their subsequent re‑estimation  to assist in identifying and assessing the risks of material misstatement in the current period and audit evidence of matters, such as estimation uncertainty, that may be required to be disclosed in the financial report.  As a practical matter, the auditor’s review of management judgements and assumptions for biases that could represent a risk of material misstatement due to fraud in accordance with this Auditing Standard may be carried out in conjunction with the review required by ASA 540.

 

Business Rationale for Significant Transactions (Ref: Para. 33(c))

A49

Indicators that may suggest that significant transactions that are outside the normal course of business for the entity, or that otherwise appear to be unusual, may have been entered into to engage in fraudulent financial reporting or to conceal misappropriation of assets include:

  • The form of such transactions appears overly complex (for example, the transaction involves multiple entities within a consolidated group or multiple unrelated third parties).
  • Management has not discussed the nature of and accounting for such transactions with those charged with governance of the entity, and there is inadequate documentation.
  • Management is placing more emphasis on the need for a particular accounting treatment than on the underlying economics of the transaction.
  • Transactions that involve non‑consolidated related parties, including special purpose entities, have not been properly reviewed or approved by those charged with governance of the entity.
  • The transactions involve previously unidentified related parties or parties that do not have the substance or the financial strength to support the transaction without assistance from the entity under audit.

Evaluation of Audit Evidence

(Ref: Para. 3538)

A50

ASA 330 requires the auditor, based on the audit procedures performed and the audit evidence obtained, to evaluate whether the assessments of the risks of material misstatement at the assertion level remain appropriate.[21]  This evaluation is primarily a qualitative matter based on the auditor’s judgement.  Such an evaluation may provide further insight about the risks of material misstatement due to fraud and whether there is a need to perform additional or different audit procedures.  Appendix 3 contains examples of circumstances that may indicate the possibility of fraud.

 

Analytical Procedures Performed Near the End of the Audit in Forming an Overall Conclusion (Ref: Para. 35)

Consideration of Identified Misstatements (Ref: Para. 3638)

A54

ASA 450[22] and ASA 700[23] establish requirements and provide guidance on the evaluation and disposition of misstatements and the effect on the auditor’s opinion in the auditor’s report. 

Auditor Unable to Continue the Engagement

(Ref: Para. 39

A55

Examples of exceptional circumstances that may arise and that may bring into question the auditor’s ability to continue performing the audit include:

  • The entity does not take the appropriate action regarding fraud that the auditor considers necessary in the circumstances, even where the fraud is not material to the financial report;
  • The auditor’s consideration of the risks of material misstatement due to fraud and the results of audit tests indicate a significant risk of material and pervasive fraud; or
  • The auditor has significant concern about the competence or integrity of management or those charged with governance.

A56

Because of the variety of the circumstances that may arise, it is not possible to describe definitively when withdrawal from an engagement is appropriate.  Factors that affect the auditor’s conclusion include the implications of the involvement of a member of management or of those charged with governance (which may affect the reliability of management representations) and the effects on the auditor of a continuing association with the entity.

A57

The auditor has professional and legal responsibilities in such circumstances and these responsibilities may vary according to circumstances.  In some circumstances, for example, the auditor may be entitled to, or required to, make a statement or report to the person or persons who made the audit appointment or, in some cases, to regulatory authorities.  Given the exceptional nature of the circumstances and the need to consider the legal requirements, the auditor may consider it appropriate to seek legal advice when deciding whether to withdraw from an engagement and in determining an appropriate course of action, including the possibility of reporting to shareholders, regulators or others.[24]

Aus A57.1

For an audit engagement under the Corporations Act 2001 (the Act), the possibility of withdrawing from the engagement or resigning from the appointment as an auditor can only be made in accordance with the provisions of the Act, including in certain circumstances, obtaining consent to resign from the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC).

Considerations Specific to Public Sector Entities

Written Representations

(Ref: Para. 40)

A59

ASA 580[25] establishes requirements and provides guidance on obtaining appropriate representations from management and, where appropriate, those charged with governance in the audit.  In addition to acknowledging that they have fulfilled their responsibility for the preparation of the financial report, it is important that, irrespective of the size of the entity, management and, where appropriate, those charged with governance acknowledge their responsibility for internal control designed, implemented and maintained to prevent and detect fraud.

Communications to Management and with Those Charged With Governance

(Ref: Para. 41-43)

Communication to Management (Ref: Para. 41)

Communication with Those Charged with Governance (Ref: Para. 42)

AusA62.1

Legislation may require the auditor or a member of the audit team to maintain the confidentiality of information disclosed to the auditor, or a member of the audit team, by a person regarding contraventions or possible contraventions of the law.*  In such circumstances, the auditor or a member of the audit team may be prevented from communicating that information to management or those charged with governance in order to protect the identity of the person who has disclosed confidential information that alleges a breach of the law.  In such circumstances, the auditor may consider obtaining legal advice to assist in determining the appropriate course of action and may need to consider the implications for the audit engagement.

A63

The auditor’s communication with those charged with governance may be made orally or in writing.  ASA 260 identifies factors the auditor considers in determining whether to communicate orally or in writing.[26]  Due to the nature and sensitivity of fraud involving senior management, or fraud that results in a material misstatement in the financial report, the auditor reports such matters on a timely basis and may consider it necessary to also report such matters in writing. 

A64

In some cases, the auditor may consider it appropriate to communicate with those charged with governance when the auditor becomes aware of fraud involving employees other than management that does not result in a material misstatement.  Similarly, those charged with governance may wish to be informed of such circumstances.  The communication process is assisted if the auditor and those charged with governance agree at an early stage in the audit about the nature and extent of the auditor’s communications in this regard. 

Other Matters Related to Fraud (Ref: Para. 43)

A66

Other matters related to fraud to be discussed with those charged with governance of the entity may include, for example:

  • Concerns about the nature, extent and frequency of management’s assessments of the controls in place to prevent and detect fraud and of the risk that the financial report may be misstated.
  • A failure by management to appropriately address identified significant deficiencies in internal control, or to appropriately respond to an identified fraud.
  • The auditor’s evaluation of the entity’s control environment, including questions regarding the competence and integrity of management.
  • Actions by management that may be indicative of fraudulent financial reporting, such as management’s selection and application of accounting policies that may be indicative of management’s effort to manage earnings in order to deceive financial statement users by influencing their perceptions as to the entity’s performance and profitability.
  • Concerns about the adequacy and completeness of the authorisation of transactions that appear to be outside the normal course of business.

Reporting Fraud to an Appropriate Authority outside the Entity

(Ref: Para. 44)

A67

ASA 250[27] provides further guidance with respect to the auditor’s determination of whether reporting identified or suspected non‑compliance with laws or regulations to an appropriate authority outside the entity is required or appropriate in the circumstances, including consideration of the auditor’s duty of confidentiality.

Aus A67.1

An auditor is required by the Corporations Act 2001 to notify the Australian Securities and Investments Commission (ASIC) if the auditor is aware of certain circumstances.*

A68

The determination required by paragraph 44 may involve complex considerations and professional judgements. Accordingly, the auditor may consider consulting internally (e.g., within the firm or a network firm) or on a confidential basis with a regulator or professional body (unless doing so is prohibited by law or regulation or would breach the duty of confidentiality). The auditor may also consider obtaining legal advice to understand the auditor’s options and the professional or legal implications of taking any particular course of action.

Considerations Specific to Public Sector Entities

15

See, for example, paragraphs R360.16-360.18 A1 of the APES 110 Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants (including Independence Standards).

16

See ASA 200, paragraph A49.

17

See ASA 315, paragraphs 6(a) and 23, and ASA 610 Using the Work of Internal Auditors.

18

See ASA 260, paragraphs A1‑A8, that discuss with whom the auditor communicates when the entity’s governance structure is not well defined.

19

See ASA 315, paragraph A48.

20

See ASA 540 Auditing Accounting Estimates and Related Disclosures, paragraph 14.

21

See ASA 330, paragraph 25.

22

See ASA 450 Evaluation of Misstatements Identified during the Audit.

23

See ASA 700 Forming an Opinion and Reporting on a Financial Report.

24

Relevant ethical requirements may provide guidance on communications with a proposed successor auditor.  See ASA 102 Compliance with Ethical Requirements when Performing Audits, Reviews and Other Assurance Engagements.

25

See ASA 580 Written Representations.

*_2

See, for example, the Corporations Act 2001, Part 9.4AAA Protection for Whistleblowers.

26

See ASA 260, paragraph A38.

27

See ASA 250, Consideration of Laws and Regulations in an Audit of a Financial Report, paragraphs A28–A34

*_3

See ASIC Regulatory Guide 34 Auditor’s obligations: reporting to ASIC (May 2013), which provides guidance to help auditors comply with their obligations, under sections 311, 601HG and 990K of the Corporations Act 2001, to report contraventions and suspected contraventions to ASIC.

Appendices

Includes: Examples of Fraud Risk Factors, Examples of Possible Audit Procedures to Address the Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud, Examples of Circumstances that Indicate the Possibility of Fraud

Examples of Fraud Risk Factors

Appendix 1

(Ref: Para. A26)

The fraud risk factors identified in this Appendix are examples of such factors that may be faced by auditors in a broad range of situations.  Separately presented are examples relating to the two types of fraud relevant to the auditor’s consideration—that is, fraudulent financial reporting and misappropriation of assets.  For each of these types of fraud, the risk factors are further classified based on the three conditions generally present when material misstatements due to fraud occur: (a) incentives/pressures, (b) opportunities, and (c) attitudes/rationalisations.  Although the risk factors cover a broad range of situations, they are only examples and, accordingly, the auditor may identify additional or different risk factors.  Not all of these examples are relevant in all circumstances, and some may be of greater or lesser significance in entities of different size or with different ownership characteristics or circumstances.  Also, the order of the examples of risk factors provided is not intended to reflect their relative importance or frequency of occurrence.

Risk Factors Relating to Misstatements Arising from Fraudulent Financial Reporting

The following are examples of risk factors relating to misstatements arising from fraudulent financial reporting.

Incentives/Pressures

Financial stability or profitability is threatened by economic, industry, or entity operating conditions, such as (or as indicated by):

  • High degree of competition or market saturation, accompanied by declining margins.
  • High vulnerability to rapid changes, such as changes in technology, product obsolescence, or interest rates.
  • Significant declines in customer demand and increasing business failures in either the industry or overall economy.
  • Operating losses making the threat of bankruptcy, foreclosure, or hostile takeover imminent.
  • Recurring negative cash flows from operations or an inability to generate cash flows from operations while reporting earnings and earnings growth.
  • Rapid growth or unusual profitability especially compared to that of other companies in the same industry.
  • New accounting, statutory, or regulatory requirements.

Excessive pressure exists for management to meet the requirements or expectations of third parties due to the following:

  • Profitability or trend level expectations of investment analysts, institutional investors, significant creditors, or other external parties (particularly expectations that are unduly aggressive or unrealistic), including expectations created by management in, for example, overly optimistic press releases or annual report messages.
  • Need to obtain additional debt or equity financing to stay competitive—including financing of major research and development or capital expenditures.
  • Marginal ability to meet exchange listing requirements or debt repayment or other debt covenant requirements.
  • Perceived or real adverse effects of reporting poor financial results on significant pending transactions, such as business combinations or contract awards.

Information available indicates that the personal financial situation of management or those charged with governance is threatened by the entity’s financial performance arising from the following:

  • Significant financial interests in the entity.
  • Significant portions of their compensation (for example, bonuses, share options, and earn‑out arrangements) being contingent upon achieving aggressive targets for share price, operating results, financial position, or cash flow.[28]
  • Personal guarantees of debts of the entity.

There is excessive pressure on management or operating personnel to meet financial targets established by those charged with governance, including sales or profitability incentive goals.

Opportunities

The nature of the industry or the entity’s operations provides opportunities to engage in fraudulent financial reporting that can arise from the following:

  • Significant related‑party transactions not in the ordinary course of business or with related entities not audited or audited by another firm.
  • A strong financial presence or ability to dominate a certain industry sector that allows the entity to dictate terms or conditions to suppliers or customers that may result in inappropriate or non‑arm’s‑length transactions.
  • Assets, liabilities, revenues, or expenses based on significant estimates that involve subjective judgements or uncertainties that are difficult to corroborate.
  • Significant, unusual, or highly complex transactions, especially those close to period end that pose difficult “substance over form” questions.
  • Significant operations located or conducted across international borders in jurisdictions where differing business environments and cultures exist.
  • Use of business intermediaries for which there appears to be no clear business justification.
  • Significant bank accounts or subsidiary or branch operations in
    tax‑haven jurisdictions for which there appears to be no clear business justification.

The monitoring of management is not effective as a result of the following:

  • Domination of management by a single person or small group (in a non owner‑managed business) without compensating controls. 
  • Oversight by those charged with governance over the financial reporting process and internal control is not effective. 

There is a complex or unstable organisational structure, as evidenced by the following:

  • Difficulty in determining the organisation or individuals that have a controlling interest in the entity. 
  • Overly complex organisational structure involving unusual legal entities or managerial lines of authority. 
  • High turnover of senior management, legal counsel, or those charged with governance. 

Internal control components are deficient as a result of the following:

  • Inadequate monitoring of controls, including automated controls and controls over interim financial reporting (where external reporting is required). 
  • High turnover rates or employment of staff in accounting, information technology or the internal audit function that are not effective. 
  • Accounting and information systems that are not effective, including situations involving significant deficiencies in internal control. 

Attitudes/Rationalisations

  • Communication, implementation, support, or enforcement of the entity’s values or ethical standards by management, or the communication of inappropriate values or ethical standards, that are not effective. 
  • Non‑financial management’s excessive participation in or preoccupation with the selection of accounting policies or the determination of significant estimates. 
  • Known history of violations of securities laws or other laws and regulations, or claims against the entity, its senior management, or those charged with governance alleging fraud or violations of laws and regulations. 
  • Excessive interest by management in maintaining or increasing the entity’s share price or earnings trend. 
  • The practice by management of committing to analysts, creditors, and other third parties to achieve aggressive or unrealistic forecasts. 
  • Management failing to remedy known significant deficiencies in internal control on a timely basis. 
  • An interest by management in employing inappropriate means to minimise reported earnings for tax‑motivated reasons. 
  • Low morale among senior management. 
  • The owner‑manager makes no distinction between personal and business transactions. 
  • Dispute between shareholders in a closely held entity. 
  • Recurring attempts by management to justify marginal or inappropriate accounting on the basis of materiality. 
  • The relationship between management and the current or predecessor auditor is strained, as exhibited by the following:
    • Frequent disputes with the current or predecessor auditor on accounting, auditing, or reporting matters.
    • Unreasonable demands on the auditor, such as unrealistic time constraints regarding the completion of the audit or the issuance of the auditor’s report. 
    • Restrictions on the auditor that inappropriately limit access to people or information or the ability to communicate effectively with those charged with governance. 
    • Domineering management behaviour in dealing with the auditor, especially involving attempts to influence the scope of the auditor’s work or the selection or continuance of personnel assigned to or consulted on the audit engagement. 

Risk Factors Relating to Misstatements Arising From Misappropriation of Assets

Risk factors that relate to misstatements arising from misappropriation of assets are also classified according to the three conditions generally present when fraud exists: incentives/pressures, opportunities, and attitudes/rationalisation.  Some of the risk factors related to misstatements arising from fraudulent financial reporting also may be present when misstatements arising from misappropriation of assets occur.  For example, ineffective monitoring of management and other deficiencies in internal control may be present when misstatements due to either fraudulent financial reporting or misappropriation of assets exist.  The following are examples of risk factors related to misstatements arising from misappropriation of assets.

Incentives/Pressures

Personal financial obligations may create pressure on management or employees with access to cash or other assets susceptible to theft to misappropriate those assets.

Adverse relationships between the entity and employees with access to cash or other assets susceptible to theft may motivate those employees to misappropriate those assets.  For example, adverse relationships may be created by the following:

  • Known or anticipated future employee layoffs. 
  • Recent or anticipated changes to employee compensation or benefit plans. 
  • Promotions, compensation, or other rewards inconsistent with expectations. 

Opportunities

Certain characteristics or circumstances may increase the susceptibility of assets to misappropriation.  For example, opportunities to misappropriate assets increase when there are the following:

  • Large amounts of cash on hand or processed. 
  • Inventory items that are small in size, of high value, or in high demand. 
  • Easily convertible assets, such as bearer bonds, diamonds, or computer chips. 
  • Fixed assets which are small in size, marketable, or lacking observable identification of ownership. 

Inadequate internal control over assets may increase the susceptibility of misappropriation of those assets.  For example, misappropriation of assets may occur because there is the following:

  • Inadequate segregation of duties or independent checks. 
  • Inadequate oversight of senior management expenditures, such as travel and other reimbursements. 
  • Inadequate management oversight of employees responsible for assets, for example, inadequate supervision or monitoring of remote locations. 
  • Inadequate job applicant screening of employees with access to assets. 
  • Inadequate record keeping with respect to assets. 
  • Inadequate system of authorisation and approval of transactions (for example, in purchasing). 
  • Inadequate physical safeguards over cash, investments, inventory, or fixed assets. 
  • Lack of complete and timely reconciliations of assets. 
  • Lack of timely and appropriate documentation of transactions, for example, credits for merchandise returns. 
  • Lack of mandatory holidays for employees performing key control functions. 
  • Inadequate management understanding of information technology, which enables information technology employees to perpetrate a misappropriation. 
  • Inadequate access controls over automated records, including controls over and review of computer systems event logs. 

Attitudes/Rationalisations

  • Disregard for the need for monitoring or reducing risks related to misappropriations of assets. 
  • Disregard for internal control over misappropriation of assets by overriding existing controls or by failing to take appropriate remedial action on known deficiencies in internal control. 
  • Behaviour indicating displeasure or dissatisfaction with the entity or its treatment of the employee. 
  • Changes in behaviour or lifestyle that may indicate assets have been misappropriated. 
  • Tolerance of petty theft.

Examples of Possible Audit Procedures to Address the Assessed Risks of Material Misstatement Due to Fraud

Appendix 2

(Ref: Para. A41)

The following are examples of possible audit procedures to address the assessed risks of material misstatement due to fraud resulting from both fraudulent financial reporting and misappropriation of assets.  Although these procedures cover a broad range of situations, they are only examples and, accordingly they may not be the most appropriate nor necessary in each circumstance.  Also the order of the procedures provided is not intended to reflect their relative importance.

Consideration at the Assertion Level

Specific responses to the auditor’s assessment of the risks of material misstatement due to fraud will vary depending upon the types or combinations of fraud risk factors or conditions identified, and the classes of transactions, account balances, disclosures and assertions they may affect.

The following are specific examples of responses:

  • Visiting locations or performing certain tests on a surprise or unannounced basis.  For example, observing inventory at locations where auditor attendance has not been previously announced or counting cash at a particular date on a surprise basis. 
  • Requesting that inventories be counted at the end of the reporting period or on a date closer to period end to minimise the risk of manipulation of balances in the period between the date of completion of the count and the end of the reporting period. 
  • Altering the audit approach in the current year.  For example, contacting major customers and suppliers orally in addition to sending written confirmation, sending confirmation requests to a specific party within an organisation, or seeking more or different information. 
  • Performing a detailed review of the entity’s month‑end or year‑end adjusting entries and investigating any that appear unusual as to nature or amount. 
  • For significant and unusual transactions, particularly those occurring at or near year‑end, investigating the possibility of related parties and the sources of financial resources supporting the transactions. 
  • Performing substantive analytical procedures using disaggregated data.  For example, comparing sales and cost of sales by location, line of business or month to expectations developed by the auditor. 
  • Conducting interviews of personnel involved in areas where a risk of material misstatement due to fraud has been identified, to obtain their insights about the risk and whether, or how, controls address the risk. 
  • When other independent auditors are auditing the financial report of one or more subsidiaries, divisions or branches, discussing with them the extent of work necessary to be performed to address the assessed risk of material misstatement due to fraud resulting from transactions and activities among these components. 
  • If the work of an expert becomes particularly significant with respect to a financial statement item for which the assessed risk of misstatement due to fraud is high, performing additional procedures relating to some or all of the expert’s assumptions, methods or findings to determine that the findings are not unreasonable, or engaging another expert for that purpose. 
  • Performing audit procedures to analyse selected opening balance sheet accounts of the previously audited financial report to assess how certain issues involving accounting estimates and judgements, for example, an allowance for sales returns, were resolved with the benefit of hindsight. 
  • Performing procedures on account or other reconciliations prepared by the entity, including considering reconciliations performed at interim periods. 
  • Performing computer‑assisted techniques, such as data mining to test for anomalies in a population. 
  • Testing the integrity of computer‑produced records and transactions. 
  • Seeking additional audit evidence from sources outside of the entity being audited. 

Specific Responses—Misstatement Resulting from Fraudulent Financial Reporting

Examples of responses to the auditor’s assessment of the risks of material misstatement due to fraudulent financial reporting are as follows:

Revenue Recognition

  • Performing substantive analytical procedures relating to revenue using disaggregated data, for example, comparing revenue reported by month and by product line or business segment during the current reporting period with comparable prior periods.  Computer‑assisted audit techniques may be useful in identifying unusual or unexpected revenue relationships or transactions. 
  • Confirming with customers certain relevant contract terms and the absence of side agreements, because the appropriate accounting often is influenced by such terms or agreements and basis for rebates or the period to which they relate are often poorly documented.  For example, acceptance criteria, delivery and payment terms, the absence of future or continuing vendor obligations, the right to return the product, guaranteed resale amounts, and cancellation or refund provisions often are relevant in such circumstances. 
  • Enquiring of the entity’s sales and marketing personnel or in‑house legal counsel regarding sales or shipments near the end of the period and their knowledge of any unusual terms or conditions associated with these transactions. 
  • Being physically present at one or more locations at period end to observe goods being shipped or being readied for shipment (or returns awaiting processing) and performing other appropriate sales and inventory cut‑off procedures. 
  • For those situations for which revenue transactions are electronically initiated, processed, and recorded, testing controls to determine whether they provide assurance that recorded revenue transactions occurred and are properly recorded. 

Inventory Quantities

  • Examining the entity's inventory records to identify locations or items that require specific attention during or after the physical inventory count.
  • Observing inventory counts at certain locations on an unannounced basis or conducting inventory counts at all locations on the same date.
  • Conducting inventory counts at or near the end of the reporting period to minimise the risk of inappropriate manipulation during the period between the count and the end of the reporting period. 
  • Performing additional procedures during the observation of the count, for example, more rigorously examining the contents of boxed items, the manner in which the goods are stacked (for example, hollow squares) or labelled, and the quality (that is, purity, grade, or concentration) of liquid substances such as perfumes or specialty chemicals.  Using the work of an expert may be helpful in this regard. 
  • Comparing the quantities for the current period with prior periods by class or category of inventory, location or other criteria, or comparison of quantities counted with perpetual records.
  • Using computer‑assisted audit techniques to further test the compilation of the physical inventory counts—for example, sorting by tag number to test tag controls or by item serial number to test the possibility of item omission or duplication. 

Management Estimates

  • Using an expert to develop an independent estimate for comparison to management’s estimate. 
  • Extending enquiries to individuals outside of management and the accounting department to corroborate management’s ability and intent to carry out plans that are relevant to developing the estimate. 

Specific Responses—Misstatements Due to Misappropriation of Assets

Differing circumstances would necessarily dictate different responses.  Ordinarily, the audit response to an assessed risk of material misstatement due to fraud relating to misappropriation of assets will be directed toward certain account balances and classes of transactions.  Although some of the audit responses noted in the two categories above may apply in such circumstances, the scope of the work is to be linked to the specific information about the misappropriation risk that has been identified. 

Examples of responses to the auditor’s assessment of the risk of material misstatements due to misappropriation of assets are as follows:

  • Counting cash or securities at or near year‑end. 
  • Confirming directly with customers the account activity (including credit memo and sales return activity as well as dates payments were made) for the period under audit. 
  • Analysing recoveries of written‑off accounts. 
  • Analysing inventory shortages by location or product type.
  • Comparing key inventory ratios to industry norm. 
  • Reviewing supporting documentation for reductions to the perpetual inventory records. 
  • Performing a computerised match of the vendor list with a list of employees to identify matches of addresses or phone numbers. 
  • Performing a computerised search of payroll records to identify duplicate addresses, employee identification or taxing authority numbers or bank accounts. 
  • Reviewing personnel files for those that contain little or no evidence of activity, for example, lack of performance evaluations. 
  • Analysing sales discounts and returns for unusual patterns or trends. 
  • Confirming specific terms of contracts with third parties. 
  • Obtaining evidence that contracts are being carried out in accordance with their terms. 
  • Reviewing the propriety of large and unusual expenses. 
  • Reviewing the authorisation and carrying value of senior management and related party loans. 
  • Reviewing the level and propriety of expense reports submitted by senior management.

Examples of Circumstances that Indicate the Possibility of Fraud

Appendix 3

(Ref: Para. A50)

The following are examples of circumstances that may indicate the possibility that the financial report may contain a material misstatement resulting from fraud.

Discrepancies in the accounting records, including:

  • Transactions that are not recorded in a complete or timely manner or are improperly recorded as to amount, accounting period, classification, or entity policy. 
  • Unsupported or unauthorised balances or transactions. 
  • Last‑minute adjustments that significantly affect financial results. 
  • Evidence of employees’ access to systems and records inconsistent with that necessary to perform their authorised duties. 
  • Tips or complaints to the auditor about alleged fraud. 

Conflicting or missing evidence, including:

  • Missing documents. 
  • Documents that appear to have been altered. 
  • Unavailability of other than photocopied or electronically transmitted documents when documents in original form are expected to exist. 
  • Significant unexplained items on reconciliations. 
  • Unusual balance sheet changes, or changes in trends or important financial statement ratios or relationships – for example receivables growing faster than revenues. 
  • Inconsistent, vague, or implausible responses from management or employees arising from enquiries or analytical procedures.
  • Unusual discrepancies between the entity's records and confirmation replies. 
  • Large numbers of credit entries and other adjustments made to accounts receivable records. 
  • Unexplained or inadequately explained differences between the accounts receivable sub‑ledger and the control account, or between the customer statements and the accounts receivable sub‑ledger. 
  • Missing or non‑existent cancelled cheques in circumstances where cancelled cheques are ordinarily returned to the entity with the bank statement. 
  • Missing inventory or physical assets of significant magnitude. 
  • Unavailable or missing electronic evidence, inconsistent with the entity’s record retention practices or policies. 
  • Fewer responses to confirmations than anticipated or a greater number of responses than anticipated. 
  • Inability to produce evidence of key systems development and program change testing and implementation activities for current‑year system changes and deployments. 

Problematic or unusual relationships between the auditor and management, including:

  • Denial of access to records, facilities, certain employees, customers, vendors, or others from whom audit evidence might be sought. 
  • Undue time pressures imposed by management to resolve complex or contentious issues. 
  • Complaints by management about the conduct of the audit or management intimidation of engagement team members, particularly in connection with the auditor’s critical assessment of audit evidence or in the resolution of potential disagreements with management. 
  • Unusual delays by the entity in providing requested information. 
  • Unwillingness to facilitate auditor access to key electronic files for testing through the use of computer‑assisted audit techniques. 
  • Denial of access to key IT operations staff and facilities, including security, operations, and systems development personnel. 
  • An unwillingness to add or revise disclosures in the financial report to make them more complete and understandable. 
  • An unwillingness to address identified deficiencies in internal control on a timely basis. 

Other

  • Unwillingness by management to permit the auditor to meet privately with those charged with governance. 
  • Accounting policies that appear to be at variance with industry norms. 
  • Frequent changes in accounting estimates that do not appear to result from changed circumstances. 
  • Tolerance of violations of the entity’s Code of Conduct.

28

Management incentive plans may be contingent upon achieving targets relating only to certain accounts or selected activities of the entity, even though the related accounts or activities may not be material to the entity as a whole.

Top of Page